Indus Valley Civilization

Between approximately 7000 and approximately 600 BCE, a cultural and political entity known as the Indus Valley Civilization flourished in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. It is also known as the Harrapan Civilization and the Indus-Sarasvati Civilization, both of which derive from its location in the Indus River valley.

The Sarasvati River, which was mentioned in the Vedas and ran next to the Indus River, and the ancient city of Harappa in the area—the first one found in the modern era—give rise to these latter designations. Even though scholars generally believe that the people of this civilization developed a writing system (known as Indus Script or Harappan Script), it has not yet been deciphered, so none of these names are derived from any ancient texts.

The origin, growth, decline, and demise of the civilization are all modern constructs, and nothing definitively known. However, a probable chronology and periodization have been established by modern archaeology:

The Indus Valley Civilization is now frequently compared to the far more well-known cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, but this is a relatively recent development. Pre-Harappan – c. 7000 to c. 5500 BCE Early Harappan – c. 5500 to c. 2800 BCE Mature Harappan – c. 2800 to c. 1900 BCE Late Harappan – c. 1900 to c. 1500 BCE Post The first evidence that such a civilization existed in India was the discovery of Harappa in 1829 CE. By that time, Egyptian hieroglyphics had been deciphered, Egyptian and Mesopotamian sites had been excavated, and George Smith, a scholar who lived from 1840 to 1876 CE, would soon translate cuneiform. As a result, archaeological excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization began much later than expected, and it is now believed that many of Egypt and Mesopotamia's accomplishments and "firsts" may actually belong to the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.

It is estimated that the city has a population of more than 5 million people, and its territory extends over 1,500 kilometers (900 miles) along the Indius River.

The two most popular exhumed urban communities of this culture are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (situated in current Pakistan), the two of which are remembered to have once had populaces of between 40,000-50,000 individuals, which is staggering when one understands that most old urban communities had on normal 10,000 individuals living in them. It is believed that the civilization had a population of more than 5 million people and that its territory extended for more than 1,500 kilometers along the banks of the Indus River and then in all directions. To name just a few places, Indus Valley Civilization sites have been discovered near Nepal's border, in Afghanistan, along India's coast, and in the vicinity of Delhi.

The civilization began to decline for unknown reasons around 1900 and 1500 BCE. This was thought to have happened at the beginning of the 20th century CE when light-skinned people from the north, known as Aryans, invaded and conquered dark-skinned people, who Western scholars called Dravidians. The Aryan Invasion Theory, or this claim, has been proven false. While the term "Dravidian" is now understood to refer to anyone of any ethnicity who speaks one of the Dravidian languages, the Aryans, whose ethnicity is associated with the Iranian Persians, are now believed to have peacefully migrated to the region and blended their culture with that of the indigenous people.

 

Scholars believe that climate change, the drying up of the Sarasvati River, a change in the path of the monsoon that watered crops, overpopulation of the cities, a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, or a combination of any of the aforementioned factors may have contributed to the decline and fall of the Indus Valley Civilization. At many of the sites that have been discovered thus far, excavations are still ongoing, and some of the discoveries that will be made in the future may provide additional information regarding the history of the culture as well as its decline.

The symbols and inscriptions on the artifacts of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which have been interpreted by some scholars as a writing system, remain untranslated. As a result, archaeologists generally avoid defining the culture's origin because doing so would be speculative. The physical evidence that has been dug up at various locations is all that has been discovered about the civilization thus far. Therefore, the discovery of its ruins in the 19th century CE is the best way to tell the story of the Indus Valley Civilization.

James Lewis, better known as Charles Masson from 1800 to 1853 CE, was a British soldier in the East India Company Army's artillery when he and another soldier deserted in 1827 CE. He changed his name to Charles Masson and began a series of journeys throughout India to avoid being discovered by authorities. Masson was a devoted numismatist—a person who collects coins—who was particularly interested in old coins. He followed a number of leads and ended up excavating ancient sites on his own. He discovered Harappa, one of these sites, in 1829 CE. He seems to have left the site quickly after writing about it in his notes, but he wrongly said that Alexander the Great built the city during his campaigns in India around 326 BCE. He had no idea who could have built it.

After his adventures, Masson returned to Britain and was somehow forgivable for his desertion. In 1842, he published his book Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab. This book caught the attention of the British authorities in India, particularly Alexander Cunningham. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), an organization devoted to maintaining a professional standard of excavation and preservation of historic sites, was established in 1861 CE by Sir Alexander Cunningham (born 1814–1893), a British engineer in the nation who had a passion for ancient history. In 1875 CE, Cunningham published his interpretation of the site, in which he identified and named the Indus Script. However, this interpretation was incomplete and lacked definition because Harappa remained isolated and had no connection to any known ancient civilization that could have constructed it.

John Marshall (born 1876–58 CE), a new director of the ASI, was appointed in 1904 CE. Marshall later visited Harappa and came to the conclusion that the location represented an ancient civilization that had never been seen before. He ordered the entire site to be excavated at the same time he heard about another site a few miles away, which the locals called Mohenjo-daro, or "the mound of the dead," because there were human and animal bones and other artifacts there. The 1924-1925 season saw the beginning of excavations at Mohenjo-daro, and the similarities between the two sites were discovered; The civilization of the Indus Valley had been discovered.

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro Western scholars were already familiar with the Hindu epics known as the Vedas and other significant works of Indian tradition such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, but they were unaware of the culture that inspired them. They were unable to attribute the works to Indians because of systemic racism at the time, and archaeologists initially concluded that Harappa was either an Egyptian outpost or a Sumerian colony.

However, there was no evidence of temples, palaces, or monumental structures at Harappa, nor were there any names of kings or queens, stelae, or royal statues. Harappa's architecture was not like that of Egypt or Mesopotamia. The city spread north of 370 sections of land (150 hectares) of little, block houses with level rooftops made of earth. When the excavators compared the two sites, it became clear that they were dealing with a highly advanced culture. There was a citadel, walls, and the streets were laid out in a grid pattern, indicating a high level of urban planning skill.

Flush toilets, a sewer system, and fixtures on either side of the street were all part of an elaborate drainage system that was even more advanced than that of the early Romans in both cities. At Mohenjo-daro, there was a massive public bath that was surrounded by a courtyard and had steps leading down into it. These devices, which came from Persia and were known as "wind catchers," were attached to the roofs of some buildings and provided air conditioning for the home or administrative office.

The same level of expertise and sophistication as well as the realization that each of these cities had been pre-planned emerged as additional sites were discovered. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, in contrast to those of other cultures, which typically emerged from smaller, rural communities, were planned, selected, and purposefully constructed prior to full habitation. In addition, they all shared a single vision that suggested a powerful central government with an effective bureaucracy capable of planning, funding, and building such cities.

All of these pioneers were amazed by their apparent similarity, which is still the distinguishing feature of the several hundred Harappan sites that are currently known: Across the vast area that the Harappan civilization ruled, as well as over the several centuries it flourished, we get the overwhelming impression of cultural uniformity. The stone cubes used by the Harappans to measure weights, on the other hand, are also standard and based on the modular system, just like the ubiquitous bricks. The widths of the roads follow a similar module; in this manner, roads are commonly two times the width of side paths, while the primary courses are two times or one and a half times the width of roads. The majority of the streets that have been dug up so far are straight and either run east-west or north-south. As a result, city plans follow a consistent grid pattern and appear to have stayed that way through several building phases.

The British archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler (born 1890–76 CE), whose racialist ideology made it difficult for him to accept that dark-skinned people had built the cities, directed excavations at both sites from 1944 to 1948 CE. Despite this, he was able to establish stratigraphy for Harappa and lay the groundwork for the Indus Valley Civilization's subsequent periodization.

Chronology Wheeler's work gave archaeologists the ability to estimate dates from the beginning of the civilization to its decline and fall. As previously stated, the physical evidence from Harappan sites and knowledge of their trade relationships with Egypt and Mesopotamia comprise the bulk of the chronology. For example, lapis lazuli was very popular in both cultures. Scholars knew it came from India, but they didn't know exactly where until the Indus Valley Civilization was found. Even though this semi-precious stone would continue to be imported after the Indus Valley Civilization collapsed, it is abundantly clear that at first, a portion of the exports originated in this region.

Pre-Harappan, circa 7000–5500 BCE: Sites like Mehrgarh, which show evidence of agricultural development, domestication of plants and animals, and the production of tools and ceramics, provide the best illustration of the Neolithic period.

Early Harappan, between 5500 and 2800 BCE: Trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and possibly China is well established. communities that live in small villages that build ports, docks, and warehouses close to waterways.

Harappan at maturity, circa 2800 to 1900 BCE: The development of large cities and widespread urbanization Around 2600 BCE, both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa flourished. This development of the land continues with the construction of hundreds of additional cities until there are over 1,000 of them throughout the land in every direction. Other cities like Ganeriwala, Lothal, and Dholavira are built using the same blueprints.

Late Harappan, around 1900 and around 1500 BCE: A wave of Aryan migration from the north, most likely the Iranian Plateau, coincided with the decline of the civilization. Physical evidence suggests that flooding, drought, and famine were brought on by climate change. It has also been suggested that a decrease in trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia played a role.

Between c. 1500 and c. 600 BCE, post-Harappan: The people have left the cities and moved south. By the time Cyrus II (the Great, 550-530 BCE) invades India in 530 BCE, the civilization has already fallen.

Amplitude Studios (Copyright) Aspects of Culture Harappan Civilization (Artist's Impression) The people appear to have been primarily artisans, farmers, and merchants. Temples, palaces, and no evidence of a standing army are missing. It is speculated that religious belief-related purification rites were performed in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro; It could also have been a recreational pool open to the public. Although it would appear that each city had its own governor, it is thought that a centralized government was necessary for the cities to be uniform. John Keay says:

The materials, utensils, and tools of the Harappan people support this impression of uniformity. The Harappans sliced, scraped, beveled, and bored with "effortless competence" using a standard set of tools made of chert, a type of quartz, or copper and bronze. They were unfamiliar with iron, which was unknown anywhere in the third millennium BC. The only metals available were these and gold and silver. They were also used to cast vessels, statuettes, knives, fishhooks, arrowheads, saws, chisels, sickles, pins, and bangles, among other things. 10) Small soapstone seals measuring just over an inch (3 cm) in diameter were among the thousands of artifacts found at the various sites. Archaeologists believe that these seals were used for personal identification in trade. These seals are thought to have been used to sign contracts, authorize land sales, and authenticate point-of-origin, shipment, and receipt of goods in long-distance trade, similar to the cylinder seals of Mesopotamia.

The people had invented the wheel, cattle-drawn carts, boats with flat bottoms that could carry trade goods, and possibly even the sail. They were aware of and utilized various farming implements, irrigation systems, and canals in agriculture, and they established distinct areas for crops and cattle grazing. Numerous female-shaped figurines, amulets, and statuettes suggest that fertility practices were followed for both full harvests and female pregnancies. It is possible that the people worshipped a Mother Goddess deity as well as a male consort who was depicted as a horned figure with wild animals around. However, the culture's religious beliefs are unknown, so any speculation is required.

Numerous statuary, soapstone seals, ceramics, and jewelry finds demonstrate their level of artistic skill. The bronze statuette known as "Dancing Girl," which was discovered at Mohenjo-daro in 1926 CE and stands 4 inches (10 cm) tall, is the most well-known piece of art. The image depicts an adolescent girl with her chin raised and her right hand on her hip and her left hand on her knee, as if evaluating a suitor's claims. The Priest-King, a soapstone figure that stands 6 inches (17 cm) tall and depicts a bearded man with an ornamental armband and headdress, is another impressive piece.

Over 60% of the personal seals feature what appears to be a unicorn, which makes the artwork particularly intriguing. The unicorn can be found on "1156 seals and sealings out of a total of 1755 found at Mature Harappan sites," according to Keay (17). There are many different images on these seals. He also makes the observation that the seals, regardless of the image that is displayed on them, have markings that have been interpreted as Indus Script. This suggests that the "writing" conveys a different meaning than the image. The "unicorn" and the "writing" of one's personal information could have represented a person's family, clan, city, or political affiliation.

Decline and Aryan Invasion Theory There is no conclusive explanation for the decline and fall of the culture, just as there is no clear explanation for what the "unicorn" stood for, what the seals were, or how the people worshipped their gods. People moved south from about 1900 to about 1500 BCE, when the cities were gradually abandoned. There are a number of theories regarding this, as noted, but none of them are entirely satisfactory. One posits that the Gaggar-Hakra River, which is referred to in the Vedic texts as the Sarasvati River and runs adjacent to the Indus River, dried up around 1900 BCE, forcing the people who had relied on it to relocate extensively. Sites like Mohenjo-daro that have significant siltation point to significant flooding, which is cited as an additional cause.

A decrease in essential goods for trade is yet another possibility. Egypt and Mesopotamia were both experiencing difficulties at the same time, which may have caused significant trade disruptions. The Sumerians, who were the main trading partners with the people of the Indus Valley, were engaged in driving out the Gutian invaders during the Late Harappan Period (2119-1700 BCE). Between c. 1792-1750 BCE, the Babylonian king Hammurabi was conquering their city-states as he consolidated his empire. The period in Egypt corresponds to the latter half of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE), when the weakened 13th Dynasty ruled just prior to the Hyksos' arrival and the demise of the central government.

Scholars in the early 20th century CE, on the other hand, focused on the theory that a superior race of light-skinned Aryans had conquered the Indus Valley people and driven them south.

By the time Wheeler was excavating the sites, Western scholars had been translating and interpreting the Indian Vedic literature for over 200 years. During that time, they came up with the theory that the subcontinent was at some point conquered by a light-skinned race called Aryans who established high culture everywhere. Through the publication of a work in 1786 CE by the Anglo-Welsh philologist Sir William Jones (d. 1746-1794 CE), this theory developed slowly and at first innocently. Jones, who reads Sanskrit a lot, said there had to be a common source for all of them because of the striking similarities between it and European languages. He referred to this source as being Proto-Indo-European.

Even though nothing objectively supported this view, later Western scholars attempting to identify Jones' "common source" came to the conclusion that a light-skinned race from the north, probably somewhere in Europe, had conquered the lands south, particularly India, establishing culture and spreading their language and customs. In his 1855 CE work An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, a French elitist named Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (born 1816–1882 CE) asserted that superior, light-skinned races had "Aryan blood" and were naturally inclined to rule over lesser races.

Early Iranians self-identified as "aryan," which translated to "noble," "free," or "civilized," until European racists hijacked it to serve their own agenda.

German composer Richard Wagner (born 1813–1883 CE) admired Gobineau's book. Wagner's British-born son-in-law, Houston Stewart Chamberlain (born 1855–1927 CE), would later influence Adolf Hitler and the Nazi ideology's architect, Alfred Rosenberg (born 1893–1946 CE). Max Muller, the so-called "author" of the Aryan Invasion Theory who insisted in all of his work that Aryan had to do with a linguistic difference and had nothing at all to do with ethnicity, was a German philologist and scholar who did not share these racialist views.

However, it didn't really matter what Muller said because these theories had been around for well over 50 years by the time Wheeler started excavating the sites in the 1940s CE. It would be many years more before most of researchers, scholars, and scholastics would start to perceive that 'Aryan' initially alluded to a class of individuals - having nothing to do with race - and, in the expressions of the paleontologist J. P. Mallory, "as an ethnic assignment the word [Aryan] is generally appropriately restricted to the Indo-Iranians" (Farrokh, 17). The term "Aryan" was used by early Iranians to refer to themselves as "noble," "free," or "civilized," and it was used for more than two thousand years before it was tainted by racist Europeans for their own purposes.

The Aryan Invasion Theory served as a foundation for and later supported Wheeler's interpretation of the sites. Although the Aryans were already acknowledged as the authors of the Vedas and other works, their presence in the area was too recent to support the claim that they constructed the impressive cities; However, it's possible that they were destroyed. Obviously, Wheeler was as aware of the Aryan Invasion Theory as any other archaeologist at the time, and he interpreted what he found as evidence in support of the theory; He proved the theory, which led to its subsequent rise in popularity and acceptance.

Conclusion Even though racists still use the Aryan Invasion Theory, American archaeologist George F. Dales, who looked over Wheeler's interpretations and visited the sites, found no evidence to support it in the 1960s CE, it lost its credibility. Neither the cities nor the skeletons that Wheeler had assumed had suffered a violent death during battle displayed such signs.

In addition, there was no evidence of any kind of northern conquest or mobilization before 1900 BCE in India. Between the years 1900 and 1500 BCE, the Persians, the only ethnic group that claimed to be Aryans, were a minority on the Iranian Plateau and unable to launch any kind of invasion. As a result, it was suggested that the "Aryan Invasion" was probably just a migration of Indo-Iranians who intermarried, assimilated into Indian culture, and peacefully mixed with the indigenous people.

More details about the Indus Valley Civilization's development and history will undoubtedly be discovered as excavations continue at its sites. The culture's vast accomplishments as well as its high level of technology and sophistication have been getting more and more attention. "there is much fascination with this civilization because of its high level of technological advancement," writes scholar Jeffrey D. Long (198). Along with Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley Civilization is already regarded as one of the three greatest ancient civilizations, and subsequent excavations will almost certainly elevate its status even further.